prep for IB History exam. Move to Global War. Authoritarian Regimes. European 20th Century.
| Front | Covenant of the League of Nations |
| Back | (1920)The charter of the League, an international organization founded after World War I to promote international cooperation and prevent future conflicts. Integrated into the Treaty of Versailles, it established the framework for a new system of collective security, although it ultimately failed to prevent the aggressions that led to World War II.Key provisions:Composed of a preamble and 26 articles, the Covenant laid out the League's primary objectives and structure. Collective Security (Article 10): Member states were bound to respect and preserve the territorial integrity and independence of all other members against external aggression.Disarmament (Article 8): Members recognized that peace required reducing national armaments to the "lowest point consistent with national safety".Dispute Resolution (Articles 12, 13, and 15): Required members to submit disputes to arbitration, judicial settlement, or council inquiry before resorting to war. A waiting period of three months was stipulated after a decision before any military action could be taken.Sanctions (Article 16): If a member went to war in violation of the Covenant, it was subject to automatic economic and financial sanctions by all other members.Mandate System (Article 22): For the former colonies of defeated powers, the Covenant created a system of mandates under the supervision of the League to guide these territories toward self-governance.Humanitarian Concerns (Article 23): Tasked with promoting international cooperation on a range of social and economic issues, including labor conditions, human and drug trafficking, and disease prevention.Organizational Structure (Articles 2, 3, 4, and 6): The League's action was to be carried out through an Assembly, a Council, and a permanent Secretariat. Factors contributing to the League's failure:Several critical weaknesses and failures undermined the League's effectiveness. Absence of Major Powers: The US, a key architect of the League under President Woodrow Wilson, never joined due to domestic opposition. Germany, Japan, and Italy, left the League in the 1930s when its mandates conflicted with their national interests.Lack of Enforcement Power: Had no military force of its own and depended on member states to enforce its resolutions. The Great Depression and renewed nationalism made nations reluctant to risk their own interests to support collective action.Ineffective Decisions: The Covenant's requirement for unanimous votes in the Assembly and Council made it difficult to act decisively. This organizational bottleneck often led to slow and ineffective responses during international crises.Policy of Appeasement: Reluctance of major powers like Britain and France to enforce strong measures encouraged aggressive actions by totalitarian states, as seen during Italy's invasion of Abyssinia and Germany's remilitarization of the Rhineland.Connection to Versailles: Tainted by its association with the Treaty of Versailles, which was viewed by some as an unjust and punitive peace settlement, further alienating key nations like Germany. |
| Front | Treaty of Shimonoseki |
| Back | (April 17, 1895) - China and JapanPeace agreement that officially ended the First Sino-Japanese War. Forced a humiliating defeat on China's Qing dynasty, ceding territory and influence to Japan. Fundamentally shifted the balance of power in East Asia.Background:The First Sino-Japanese War (25 July 1894-17 April 1895):Primarily a conflict between Japan and China for influence over Korea. Japan's modernized army and navy proved far superior, inflicting heavy defeats on the Chinese forces. By early 1895, with Japanese forces blockading key ports and threatening Beijing, the Qing government was forced to sue for peace.Key terms of the treaty:Territorial cessions: China was forced to cede Taiwan (Formosa), the Penghu (Pescadores) Islands, and the Liaodong Peninsula to Japan.Korean independence: China required to recognize Korea as an independent state, ending its long-held suzerainty over the Korean peninsula. Opened the door for Japan to expand its influence there.Indemnity: China had to pay Japan a massive indemnity of 200 million taels of silver.Trade concessions: Compelled China to open several new cities, including Shashi, Chongqing, Suzhou, and Hangzhou, to Japanese trade. The Triple Intervention:Japan's gains were met with international alarm, particularly from Russia, Germany, and France. Days after the treaty was signed, these powers intervened, pressuring Japan to return the Liaodong Peninsula to China. Japan was forced to concede, though it received an increased indemnity in return. Intervention was humiliating for Japan. Fueled its militaristic ambitions and resentment toward the Western powers.Long-term consequencesPivotal event that reshaped East Asian politics: Japan's imperial rise: Japan's victory established it as a major imperial power, acquiring its first overseas colonies and asserting its dominance in the region.China's humiliation and decline: Exposed the weakness of the Qing dynasty, accelerating its decline and encouraging further foreign encroachment from Western powers. Fueled popular resentment that contributed to later reform movements and revolutionary activity against the Qing.Catalyst for future conflicts: Set the stage for increased tensions and future conflicts. Japan's frustration with the Triple Intervention helped lead to the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, while its seizure of Taiwan set a precedent for later Japanese expansionism. |
| Front | Treaty of Tientsin |
| Back | (1858) China,UK, France, Russia, USACollection of "unequal treaties" signed in June 1858 between China's Qing dynasty and the UK, France, Russia, and the US. Result of the first phase of the Second Opium War (1856–1860), in which China was militarily defeated by the British and French. The treaties significantly expanded foreign influence in China: Expansion of treaty ports: Ten new ports were opened to foreign trade and residence, adding to the five that had been established by the earlier Treaty of Nanking.Legalization of opium: Legalized the import of opium into China.Diplomatic legations in Beijing: Foreign powers were granted the right to station permanent diplomatic legations in China's capital, previously been a closed city.Freedom of travel and religion: Foreigners received the right to travel throughout the interior of China. Missionary activity explicitly protected.Extraterritoriality: Reaffirmed the right of foreign nationals to be tried by their own countries' consular officials rather than the Chinese legal system.War indemnities: Forced to pay indemnities to Britain and France for military expenses incurred during the war.Yangtze River navigation: Foreign commercial and naval vessels gained the right to navigate the Yangtze River. Ratification:Initial refusal: The Qing dynasty initially refused to ratify the treaties. Led to a second round of fighting.Convention of Peking (1860): After Anglo-French forces invaded Beijing, the Qing signed the Convention of Peking in 1860, which formally ratified the Treaties of Tientsin and ceded the Kowloon Peninsula to the British.Century of Humiliation: Marked a period of profound national humiliation. Loss of control over its own trade and internal affairs. |