prep for IB History exam. Move to Global War. Authoritarian Regimes. European 20th Century.
| Front | Second Sino-Japanese War |
| Back | (1937–1945) - China and JapanMajor conflict fought between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan. Considered the beginning of World War II in Asia and the largest Asian war of the 20th century.Causes:Japanese imperialist ambitions: Result of Japan's desire to expand its empire and gain control of China's resources and territory.Warlord Era in China: After the collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1911, China was politically fragmented under various warlords. Nationalist government of Chiang Kai-shek struggled to unify the country, which created an opportunity for Japan to encroach.Mukden Incident (1931): Japanese officers fabricated an attack on a railway in Manchuria to justify their invasion and subsequent occupation of the region. League of Nations condemned Japan's actions, but no foreign powers intervened.Xi'an Incident (1936): Chiang Kai-shek's policy of prioritizing the elimination of Chinese communists over resisting Japan was highly unpopular. In December 1936, he was kidnapped by his own generals and forced to agree to a "United Front" with the Communist Party to resist the Japanese invasion.Marco Polo Bridge Incident (1937): Began on July 7, 1937, when a minor skirmish between Chinese and Japanese troops near Beijing quickly escalated, providing Japan with the pretext for a full-scale invasion of China. Course of the war:Initial Japanese advance (1937–1938):Fall of major cities: Superior military and industrial strength of the Japanese forces allowed them to quickly capture key Chinese cities.Rape of Nanjing: After taking Nanjing, Japanese forces carried out a six-week-long massacre, murdering hundreds of thousands of civilians and unarmed soldiers and committing widespread rape.Chinese resilience: In response to the invasion, Nationalist government moved its capital to Chongqing in China's interior. Strategy of "trading space for time," the Chinese forces prolonged the war to exhaust the Japanese military. Stalemate and guerrilla warfare (1939–1944):Guerrilla tactics: Chinese Communists, operating in the rural areas behind Japanese lines, effectively used guerrilla tactics to harass Japanese forces and disrupt supply lines.Fragmented control: Japanese control largely confined to major cities and railway lines. Attempted to install puppet governments, but these were largely ineffective and unpopular.Yellow River Flood (1938): Defensive measure. Chinese army breached dikes on the Yellow River to halt the Japanese advance. Caused immense flooding, killing hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians, but temporarily delayed the Japanese. Pacific War (1941–1945):Internationalization of the conflict: Merged into World War II after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941. Brought the US and other Allied powers into the conflict.Allied aid to China: Allied aid to China, primarily from the U.S. under the Lend-Lease Act, was delivered over "The Hump"—an airlift route over the Himalayas—after Japan cut off access via Burma.Continued Chinese resistance: China continued to tie down millions of Japanese troops, preventing them from being redeployed to other Pacific fronts. Contributed significantly to the Allied victory against Japan. Consequences:Devastating human cost: Incredibly brutal, with estimates of Chinese civilian and military deaths ranging up to 20 million or more. Millions more were displaced.End of the war: Japan's formal surrender on September 2, 1945, brought the Second Sino-Japanese War to an end. China regained all territories lost to Japan since 1895.Resumption of the Chinese Civil War: War with Japan exhausted the Nationalist government and allowed the Communists to consolidate power, creating conditions that led to the resumption of the Chinese Civil War in 1946.The rise of Communist China: By 1949, Mao's communist forces had defeated Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalists, leading to the establishment of the People's Republic of China on the mainland. Nationalists fled to Taiwan. |
| Front | First Sino-Japanese War |
| Back | (1894–1895) - China and JapanConflict fought between the Qing dynasty of China and the Empire of Japan, primarily over influence in Korea. Japan's decisive victory marked the end of China's regional dominance and established Japan as a rising world power. Causes:Competing interests in Korea: Both China, Korea's traditional suzerain, and a rapidly modernizing Japan saw Korea as strategically and economically important.Tonghak Rebellion (1894): Korean king requested China's help to put down a peasant rebellion. Japan used China's sending of troops as a pretext for war, violating the Convention of Tientsin, which required mutual notification.Japanese expansionist ambitions: After Meiji Restoration, Japan modernized its military and sought to expand its influence. Military thinkers saw Korea as a "dagger pointed at the heart of Japan".Chinese weakness: Qing dynasty's attempts at modernization through the Self-Strengthening Movement were largely ineffective due to corruption and resistance. A prime example of this was the embezzlement of naval funds by Empress Dowager Cixi to renovate the Summer Palace. Course of the war:Initial Japanese advance: Japanese troops swiftly defeated Chinese forces. Naval victories, particularly at the Battle of the Yellow Sea, crippled China's Beiyang Fleet.Invasion of China: After seizing Pyongyang and expelling Chinese forces from Korea, the Japanese invaded Manchuria and the Shandong Peninsula. This put Beijing under threat. Forced China to sue for peace.Port Arthur massacre: (Nov 1894) Japanese troops killed thousands of Chinese civilians and soldiers in the city of Port Arthur. Drew international attention. Treaty of Shimonoseki (April 17, 1895):Ended the war. The terms were humiliating for China: China recognized the "full and complete independence" of Korea.China ceded the Liaodong Peninsula, Taiwan, and the Penghu Islands to Japan.China paid massive indemnity of 200 million taels of silver to Japan.China opened more ports to Japanese trade. Consequences:Triple Intervention: A week after the treaty was signed, Russia, Germany, and France pressured Japan to return the Liaodong Peninsula to China in exchange for a larger indemnity. Japan's humiliation over this foreign intervention fueled nationalistic anger. Contributed to the Russo-Japanese War a decade later.End of China's dominance: Exposed the Qing dynasty's deep-seated weaknesses. Marked the end of China's traditional dominance in East Asia.Japanese imperialism: Victory secured its position as a major imperial power.Instability in China: Sparked an increase in Chinese nationalism and led to the Hundred Days' Reform and revolutionary activity that ultimately toppled the Qing dynasty in the 1911 Xinhai Revolution. |
| Front | Abyssinian War (First Italo-Ethiopian War) |
| Back | (1895 to 1896) - Italy and EthiopiaMilitary conflict between Italy and Ethiopia. Resulted in a decisive Ethiopian victory, securing the country's sovereignty and halting Italy's colonial ambitions in the region. Major blow to European colonial powers and became a significant symbol of pan-Africanism. Causes:Diplomatic dispute over the interpretation of the 1889 Treaty of Wuchale. The Italian version of the treaty, signed in Rome, suggested that Ethiopia had become an Italian protectorate.The Amharic version, signed in Ethiopia, only stipulated that Emperor Menelik II could use Italy as an intermediary in foreign relations if he chose to.Emperor Menelik II discovered the discrepancy and, in 1893, renounced the treaty. Italian PM Francesco Crispi, seeking a prominent place among colonial powers, responded by invading Ethiopia from Italy's colony of Eritrea in 1895. The course of the war:Initial Italian success: Italians advanced from Eritrea, winning some initial skirmishes.Ethiopian mobilization: Menelik II, who had been acquiring modern weaponry from Russia and France, mobilized a massive army. His forces greatly outnumbered the Italian force.Battle of Adwa: Culminated on March 1, 1896. The Italian army, in unfamiliar and difficult terrain, was poorly organized and outnumbered. The Ethiopian army surrounded and overwhelmed the Italian brigades. Catastrophic defeat for the Italian forces.Significance:Treaty of Addis Ababa (October 1896): Official end to the war. Italy forced to recognize Ethiopia's complete sovereignty and independence, and the Treaty of Wuchale was formally abrogated.Political repercussions in Italy: Defeat was a national humiliation. Following the disastrous news from Adwa, riots broke out in Italian cities, leading to the collapse of Crispi's government.Symbol of resistance: Ethiopia's decisive victory made it the only African nation to successfully resist European colonization during the "Scramble for Africa". Inspired pan-African and anti-colonial movements worldwide. |