prep for IB History exam. Move to Global War. Authoritarian Regimes. European 20th Century.
| Front | Rudolf Hess |
| Back | Hitler's Deputy Führer, a key figure in the Nazi Party until his bizarre and unauthorized solo flight to Scotland in 1941. He was captured and imprisoned for the rest of his life.Nazi careerEarly loyalist: Hess was an early and devoted follower of Hitler, joining the Nazi Party in 1920. Participated in the failed Beer Hall Putsch in 1923. Served prison time with Hitler. He acted as Hitler's personal secretary, helping to write and edit Mein Kampf.Deputy Führer: When Hitler came to power in 1933, Hess was appointed Deputy Führer. His role primarily involved party administration, but his proximity to Hitler gave him significant influence within the Nazi Party.Marginalized figure: As World War II began, Hess's influence waned. Sidelined in favor of more ambitious and pragmatic party leaders like Martin Bormann, who eventually took over most of his responsibilities. Flight to ScotlandMotivation: (May 1941) In a shocking and mysterious turn of events, Hess stole a Messerschmitt Bf 110 aircraft and flew to Scotland. He bailed out near the estate of the Duke of Hamilton, whom he mistakenly believed was part of a faction that wanted peace with Germany. Hess's goal was to negotiate a peace settlement with Britain.Outcome: The British government arrested Hess immediately. Both Hitler and the British dismissed Hess's peace proposals. Hitler declared his former deputy a lunatic, stripping him of his titles and having him removed from all Nazi records. Trial and imprisonmentNuremberg trials: Returned to Germany to stand trial with other major Nazi leaders at the Nuremberg trials. Convicted of conspiracy and crimes against peace, but was not sentenced to death, partly because of his diminished role and mental instability.Life sentence at Spandau: Sentenced to life in prison and was incarcerated in Spandau Prison in Berlin. Became sole prisoner at Spandau from 1966-his death in 1987. |
| Front | Giacomo Matteotti |
| Back | Socialist politician and a fierce critic of Mussolini and his Fascist regime. His assassination by Fascist thugs in 1924, following his public condemnation of Fascist violence and electoral fraud, shocked Italy. Turning point that solidified Mussolini's dictatorship. Opposition to Fascism and assassination:A voice against Fascism: As the Secretary of the Unitary Socialist Party (PSU), Matteotti became one of the most prominent opposition figures after Mussolini came to power in 1922. In speeches and a 1921 pamphlet, he relentlessly exposed the violence, intimidation, and fraud perpetrated by the Fascists.May 30, 1924, speech: During a parliamentary session, Matteotti delivered a powerful speech condemning the Fascists' use of violence and manipulation to rig the recent general election. He called for the election to be annulled, stating his awareness of the risks involved in opposing the regime.Murder and investigation: On June 10, 1924, just 11 days after his speech, Matteotti was kidnapped by a Fascist squad in Rome. His body was found in a wooded area outside the city over two months later. The subsequent investigation quickly implicated members of Mussolini's inner circle.The "Matteotti Crisis": The murder triggered a major political crisis known as the "Matteotti Crisis." Public outrage was widespread, and opposition parties walked out of parliament in a protest called the "Aventine Secession". Aftermath:Mussolini's consolidation of power: Crisis initially threatened Mussolini's power, he ultimately used it to his advantage. In a defiant speech on January 3, 1925, Mussolini famously took responsibility for the political climate that led to the murder, ending the pretense of a legitimate government. He proceeded to dismantle Italy's democratic institutions and consolidate absolute dictatorial rule. |
| Front | Liu Shaoqi |
| Back | (1898–1969)Chinese revolutionary, politician, and theorist who served as Chairman of the People's Republic of China from 1959 until he was purged during the Cultural Revolution. Once considered the successor to Mao but died in prison after being denounced as a "capitalist roader".Early career:Education and early involvement: Liu studied in Moscow and joined the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in its early stages.Labor activist: Upon his return to China in 1922, he became a prominent labor organizer, leading strikes and unionizing workers in various industries.Rise in the party: By 1927, he was elected to the CCP's Central Committee. He gained influence within the party and was recognized for his organizational and theoretical skills. Leadership and policymaking:Post-1949: Following the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, Liu was appointed chief vice-chairman of the party. Oversaw the implementation of a Soviet-style economic model to modernize the country.Chairman of the PRC: In 1959, he replaced Mao as Chairman of the PRC (a ceremonial head of state role), while still holding a high-ranking position within the CCP.Response to the Great Leap Forward: Initially supported the Great Leap Forward but grew critical of the policies that led to widespread famine. He advocated for more pragmatic, free-market-oriented economic policies. Downfall during the Cultural Revolution:Rivalry with Mao: Differing views between Liu and Mao on China's economic and political direction led to a major conflict. Mao viewed Liu's policies as a betrayal of socialist principles and a personal attack.Purge: In the mid-1960s, Mao launched the Cultural Revolution to regain political power. Liu was made a prime target, publicly humiliated by Red Guards, and labeled a "renegade, traitor, and scab".Imprisonment and death: Stripped of all his positions in 1968, expelled from the party, and imprisoned. He died from medical neglect and abuse in 1969. Posthumous rehabilitation:Official exoneration: After Mao's death, the CCP reassessed its view of the Cultural Revolution. In February 1980, the party posthumously rehabilitated Liu Shaoqi, calling him a "great Marxist and proletarian revolutionary". |