prep for IB History exam. Move to Global War. Authoritarian Regimes. European 20th Century.
| Front | Weltpolitik |
| Back | (began 1890s)"world politics"Imperialist foreign policy adopted by the German Empire under Kaiser Wilhelm II, beginning in the 1890s. Aimed to transform Germany into a global power by challenging the established colonial empires of other European nations. Significant shift away from the more conservative, defensive Realpolitik of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck.Core components:Imperial expansion: Aggressively pursued the acquisition of overseas colonies to secure new markets and resources. Framed as Germany's demand for its "place in the sun".Naval build-up: Massive expansion of the German navy under Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, starting in 1898. German naval laws a direct attempt to rival Britain's naval supremacy.Aggressive diplomacy: Pursuit of global influence led to more assertive and confrontational diplomatic tactics, in contrast to Bismarck's subtle diplomacy. Consequences:International tensions: Germany's naval build-up and quest for colonial expansion directly challenged Britain, triggering a naval arms race and contributing to rising tensions between the two powers.Formation of alliances: Aggressive policies of Weltpolitik alarmed other European nations and played a significant role in the solidification of the Triple Entente.A cause of World War I: Competitive and militaristic nature of Weltpolitik set Germany on a collision course with existing powers and helped create the atmosphere of suspicion and hostility that characterized the early 20th century. |
| Front | Northern Expedition |
| Back | (1926–1928)Major military campaign led by the Kuomintang (KMT), or Nationalist Party, to unify China and defeat the powerful regional warlords who had controlled the country since the collapse of the Qing dynasty. Largely successful, ending the Warlord Era and establishing a new Nationalist government in Nanjing. Background:Following the Xinhai Revolution of 1911, China had fragmented into various regions controlled by different military cliques known as warlords. Decentralized power structure weakened the country and hindered its modernization. Leader of the KMT, Sun Yat-sen, advocated for unifying China under his Three Principles of the People (Nationalism, Democracy, and the People's Livelihood). After Sun's death in 1925, his successor, Chiang Kai-shek, launched the Northern Expedition in 1926 to fulfill this goal.Key aspects of the campaign:First United Front: Initially carried out as a united front between the KMT and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), with support from Soviet advisors.Propaganda and mobilization: KMT skillfully used propaganda to appeal to workers and peasants, who were weary of the warlords' oppressive rule. Helped mobilize popular support for the campaign.Military strategy: Nationalist Revolutionary Army (NRA), led by Chiang Kai-shek, was better trained and organized than many warlord armies. Successfully marched north from their base in Guangdong, conquering key cities like Wuhan, Shanghai, and Nanjing. Split between Nationalists and Communists:Exposed the deep ideological rifts between the KMT and the CCP.The Shanghai Massacre (1927): As the NRA approached Shanghai, a communist-led labor uprising helped capture the city. Fearing the growing influence of the communists and under pressure from right-wing KMT factions, Chiang Kai-shek launched a bloody purge of communists in Shanghai. Ended the First United Front.Split of the KMT: Chiang's purge of the communists led to a temporary split within the KMT, with a left-wing faction setting up a rival government in Wuhan. After a later purge of communists in Wuhan, the two factions reconciled. Outcome and consequences:Formal unification: (1928) Campaign culminated in the nominal unification of China. Warlord controlling Manchuria, Zhang Zuolin, was assassinated by the Japanese, and his son, Zhang Xueliang, pledged allegiance to the Nationalist government in Nanjing.Limited control: Technically reunified but many former warlords retained significant regional power, leading to subsequent conflicts.Beginning of the Chinese Civil War: Northern Expedition's conclusion marked the definitive break between the KMT and the CCP, sparking a long and brutal civil war that lasted, with interruptions, until 1949.Establishment of Nanjing as the capital: KMT established Nanjing as the new capital, ushering in a period known as the Nanjing Decade. |
| Front | Schutzstaffel (SS) |
| Back | (Began 1925)Major paramilitary organization under Hitler and the Nazi Party.Formed initially as Hitler's personal bodyguards. Evolved into a vast and powerful organization led by Heinrich Himmler. Responsible for carrying out the Nazi state's most heinous atrocities, including the Holocaust.Structure:Allgemeine-SS (General SS): Main political and policing arm. Responsible for enforcing Nazi ideology and running domestic and foreign intelligence operations.Waffen-SS (Armed SS): Combat wing of the SS. Fought alongside the regular German army (the Wehrmacht) during World War II. Administered concentration camps and conducted mass executions. Throughout its existence, tasked with:Controlling the German populace: Policed citizens to ensure their commitment to Nazi ideology.Eliminating opposition: Identified and neutralized actual or potential enemies of the Nazi state.Executing the "Final Solution": Leading role in the extermination of six million Jews and millions of others.Exploiting labor: Involved in commercial enterprises that used concentration camp inmates as slave labor. Leadership and membership:Adolf Hitler: Founded the SS in 1925, initially as his personal protection unit.Heinrich Himmler: (1929) Took control of the SS. Oversaw dramatic expansion into one of the largest and most powerful organizations in Nazi Germany. Himmler was one of the main architects of the Holocaust and used the SS to implement the "Final Solution".Recruitment: Selected for their supposed "racial purity" and complete, unquestioning loyalty to the Nazi Party. Trained to see themselves as the "racial elite" of the Nazi future. Crimes and dissolution:Genocide: Oversaw the establishment and administration of concentration and extermination camps, where millions were systematically murdered by poison gas and other methods.Mass shootings: Special mobile death squads known as Einsatzgruppen conducted mass shootings of Jewish people, Polish intelligentsia, and others in German-occupied territories.Human experimentation: Doctors, such as Josef Mengele, conducted horrific and often lethal experiments on concentration camp prisoners.Systematic terror: Carried out mass arrests, torture, and killings to suppress any form of opposition. Declared the SS a criminal organization at Nuremburg Trials. |